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... brief summary of the Zhuangzian ethics of difference and its possible. He was born into a time known as the Warring States period (475-221 b.c.e. This is how fish are happy." The story of "The Debate on the Joy of Fish" is a well-known anecdote that has been compared to the Socratic dialogue tradition of ancient Greece. The Case Against Skepticism. . Let's try boring some holes for him." Zhuangzi’s disillusionment with law and politics is apparent in an anecdote recorded in chapter 17 of the Zhuangzi (traditionally c. 300 b.c.e. Zhuangzi said, "You are not I. However, upon the death of his own wife, Zhuangzi evinces a … A An aversion to Western "linguistic" philosophy still draws many to the study of Chinese thought. [13], Portions of the Zhuangzi have been discovered among bamboo slip texts from Warring States period and Han dynasty tombs, particularly at the Shuanggudui and Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts sites. ; English translation, 1876; also known as Book of Changes, 1986), the ancient manual of divination based on the concept that the world and the laws of change are an ordered, interdependent unit, and from Laozi’s Dao De Jing (possibly sixth century b.c.e., probably compiled late third century b.c.e. He had distinct natural characteristics but was not adamant about them; his humility was evident but not displayed. Zhuangzi (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism . Start your 48-hour free trial to unlock this Zhuangzi study guide. [20] In this anecdote, Mair suggests that Zhuangzi humorously and absurdly uses "Wonton"—a name for both the Chinese conception of primordial chaos and, by physical analogy, wonton soup (which is, however, not attested until the Han dynasty at the earliest[24]) —to demonstrate what he believed were the disastrous consequences of going against things' innate natures. Master Zhuang said: "I take heaven and earth as my inner and outer coffins, the sun and moon as my pair of jade disks, the stars and constellations as my pearls and beads, the ten thousand things as my funerary gifts. [32][33], The Zhuangzi interprets the universe as a thing that changes spontaneously without a conscious God or will driving it, and argues that humans can achieve ultimate happiness by living equally spontaneously. To end this little lesson in Mandarin phonology, then, we may transcribe Chuang Tzu phonetically as jwa~vng dz or jwahng dzuh. While what we know of the philosophy of Zhuangzi comes primarily from this work, it is important to realize that the Zhuangzi … ... brief summary of the Zhuangzian ethics of difference and its possible. Zhuangzi (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism . Log in here. A portrait of this stubbornly independent thinker has been preserved in Taipei’s National Palace Museum. "[6], Since ancient times, the Zhuangzi's first seven chapters—the "inner chapters" (nèi piān 內篇)—have been considered to be the actual work of Zhuangzi, and most modern scholars agree with this view. Lickety and Split often met each other in the land of Wonton, and Wonton treated them very well. THE ZHUANGZI. Zhuangzi and the Becoming of Nothingness offers a radical rereading of the Daoist classic Zhuangzi by bringing to light the role of nothingness in grounding the cosmological and metaphysical aspects of its thought. Another change and she was born. In the Zhuangzi, such characters are fools, not heroes. "[40], Traces of the Zhuangzi's influence in late Warring States period philosophical texts such as the Guanzi, Han Feizi, Huainanzi, and Lüshi Chunqiu suggest that Zhuangzi's intellectual lineage was already fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu in the 3rd century BC. [5] In the introduction to his Zhuangzi translation, the American scholar Burton Watson concluded: "Whoever Zhuang Zhou was, the writings attributed to him bear the stamp of a brilliant and original mind. [42] Zhi Dun, China's first aristocratic Buddhist monk, wrote a prominent commentary to the Zhuangzi in the mid-4th century. Zhuangzi, Chapter 6.4 Translation by Brook Ziporyn, Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings, 2009, p. 41 "The true man in ancient times was upright but impartial, humble but not servile. To view supplemental material and additional commentary on selected sections in the Zhuangzi by Brook Ziporyn, please click on the links below: * About the Zhuangzi * A Note on the Translation * Zhuangzi as Philosopher * The Dao of the Daodejing * Additional Commentary to passage 1:2 * Additional Commentary to passage 3:3 * Additional Commentary to passage 3:7 Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. "Now she's going to lie down peacefully in a vast room. Thus, Zhuangzi was a contemporary of the famous Confucian philosopher Mencius (Mengzi; c. 372-c. 289 b.c.e.). "[47] In the introduction to his 1994 translation of the Zhuangzi, the American Sinologist Victor H. Mair wrote: "I feel a sense of injustice that the Dao De Jing is so well known to my fellow citizens while the Zhuangzi is so thoroughly ignored, because I firmly believe that the latter is in every respect a superior work. It is to them that we owe both the transmission of his ideas beyond his lifetime and at least six chapters of new material, much of it consisting of narratives written in the style of the "Inner Chapters" but generally not demonstrating the same creativity and rhetorical skill. Many Western interpreters of Zhuangzi treat the author of the inner chapters as a mystic. But he didn't know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Zhuang Zhou. Its main themes are of spontaneity in action and of freedom from the human world and its conventions. [15], Among the Japanese national treasures preserved in the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto is a Zhuangzi manuscript from the Muromachi period (1338–1573). ; The Divine Classic of Nan-hua, 1881; also known as The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, 1968; commonly known as Zhuangzi, 1991): Once, when Chuang Tzu [Zhuangzi] was fishing in the P’u River, the king of Ch’u [Chu] sent two officials to go and announce to him: “I would like to trouble you with the administration of my realm.”, Chuang Tzu held on to the fishing pole and, without turning his head, said, “I have heard that there is a sacred tortoise in Ch’u that has been dead for three thousand years. I shall start with an analysis of three famous stories in the Zhuangzi. "[32] The term "wandering" (yóu 遊) is used throughout the stories of the Zhuangzi to describe how an enlightened person "wanders through all of creation, enjoying its delights without ever becoming attached to any one part of it. [36], Western scholars have long noticed that the Zhuangzi is often strongly anti-rationalist. [16] This period saw Confucianism temporarily surpassed by a revival of Daoism and old divination texts, such as the Classic of Changes (I Ching 易經), and many early medieval Chinese poets, artists, and calligraphers were deeply influenced by the Zhuangzi. Some are completely whimsical, such as the strange description of evolution from "misty spray" through a series of substances and insects to horses and humans (chapter 18), while a few other passages seem to be "sheer playful nonsense" which read like Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky". [11] The Book of Han, finished in AD 111, lists a Zhuangzi in 52 chapters, which many scholars believe to be the original form of the work. Victor H. Mair, "Introduction and Notes for a Complete Translation of the Chuang Tzu" Sino-Platonic Papers, 48 (September, 1994) such as adze, fads, and so forth, striving to enunciate only the "d" and the voiced sibilant that comes after it. Abstract The Zhuangzi offers two apparently incompatible models of bereavement. 1476 Words6 Pages Zhuangzi believes the ultimate road to attain the Way is through experience and intuition, rather than learning or reading words. ; according to his biographer, Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch’ien; 145-86 b.c.e. To view supplemental material and additional commentary on selected sections in the Zhuangzi by Brook Ziporyn, please click on the links below: * About the Zhuangzi * A Note on the Translation * Zhuangzi as Philosopher * The Dao of the Daodejing * Additional Commentary to passage 1:2 * Additional Commentary to passage 3:3 * Additional Commentary to passage 3:7 Monism, Skepticism and Relativism in the Zhuangzi. "[37] It is unclear if Zhuangzi's positions amounted to a form of anarchism, as the political references in the Zhuangzi are more concerned with what government should not do, rather than what kind of government should exist. But I looked back to her beginning and the time before she was born. Named for its traditional author, "Master Zhuang" (Zhuangzi), the Zhuangzi is one of the two foundational texts of Taoism, along with the Tao Te Ching. Introduction. Zhuangzi composes the following description of the hunchback’s experience: I hold my body like a bent tree trunk and use my arm as an old dry limb. You'll get access to all of the The Zhuangzi (Mandarin: [ʈʂwáŋ.tsɹ̩̀]; historically romanized Chuang Tzŭ) is an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period (476–221 BC) which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal Taoist sage. [46], Outside of China and the traditional "Sinosphere", the Zhuangzi lags far behind the Tao Te Ching in general popularity, and is rarely known by non-scholars. We’ve discounted annual subscriptions by 50% for our End-of-Year sale—Join Now. Zhuangzi can be a monist—but one who is also a pluralistic relativist, and a mind-body dualist (for the oneness he asserts is the oneness of the shi/fei perspective, hence one that always includes a split or division into plurality within itself). Named for its traditional author, "Master Zhuang" (Zhuangzi), the Zhuangzi is one of the two foundational texts of Taoism, along with the Tao Te Ching. The emperor of the Southern Seas was Lickety, the emperor of the Northern Sea was Split, and the emperor of the Center was Wonton. "[42] Among the traits Chan/Zen Buddhism borrowed from the Zhuangzi are a distrust of language and logic, an insistence that "the Dao" can be found in everything, even dung and urine, and a fondness for dialogues based on riddles or paradigm-challenging statements known as gōng'àn (公案; Japanese kōan). Zhuangzi can be a theist—but one who is also a naturalist and a materialist (on a whim altering his name for the agent responsible for all things, when he feels like it … Another well-known Zhuangzi story—"Drumming On a Tub and Singing"—describes how Zhuangzi did not view death as something to be feared. Zhuangzi said, "Let's go back to the beginning of this. Zhuangzi believed that the greatest of all human happiness could be achieved through a higher understanding of the nature of things, and that in order to develop oneself fully one needed to express one's innate ability. Start studying Zhuangzi Study Guide. Zhuangzi interpreters may be trained in religion, literature, history, or philosophy. [12] In 742, the Zhuangzi was canonized as one of the Chinese classics by an imperial proclamation from Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, which awarded it the honorific title True Scripture of Southern Florescence (Nánhuá zhēnjīng 南華真經)[2]—though most orthodox Chinese scholars did not consider the Zhuangzi to be a true "classic" (jing 經) due to its non-Confucian nature. Probably the greatest tragic figure in the Zhuangzi is the defiant praying mantis, who waves her Master Zhuang said: "Above ground I'd be eaten by crows and kites, below ground I'd be eaten by mole crickets and ants. [42], The Zhuangzi was very influential in the adaptation of Buddhism to Chinese culture after Buddhism was first brought to China from India in the 1st century AD. With writings as profound and vibrant as these, the historical Zhuangzi must have had quite a devoted group of followers. Zhuang Zhou (莊周), the historical figure known as "Master Zhuang" ("Zhuangzi") and traditional author of the eponymous book If [one] distinguishes them, how can [one] tell if [one] is now dreaming or awake? The Lack of Sentential Context. [32] As Burton Watson described, "the skilled woodcarver, the skilled butcher, the skilled swimmer does not ponder or ratiocinate on the course of action he should take; his skill has become so much a part of him that he merely acts instinctively and spontaneously and, without knowing why, achieves success. Zhuangzi said, "The minnows are darting about free and easy! [18], A master of language, Zhuangzi sometimes engages in logic and reasoning, but then turns it upside down or carries the arguments to absurdity to demonstrate the limitations of human knowledge and the rational world. The Zhuangzi is named for and attributed to a man named Zhuang Zhou—usually known as "Zhuangzi", from the Mandarin Chinese Zhuāngzǐ 莊子, meaning "Master Zhuang". 俄然覺，則蘧蘧然周也。不知周之夢為胡蝶與，胡蝶之夢為周與。周與胡蝶，則必有分矣。此之謂物化。 ", The stories and anecdotes of the Zhuangzi embody a unique set of principles and attitudes, including living one's life with natural spontaneity, uniting one's inner self with the cosmic "Way" (Dao), keeping oneself distant from politics and social obligations, accepting death as a natural transformation, showing appreciation and praise for things others view as useless or aimless, and stridently rejecting social values and conventional reasoning. [26] The story seems to make the point that "knowing" a thing is simply a state of mind, and that it is not possible to determine if that knowing has any objective validity. How do you know that I do not know that the fish are happy?" "You lived with her, she brought up your children and grew old," said Huizi. Not only the time before she had a body, but the time before she had a spirit. The king keeps it wrapped in cloth and boxed, and stores it in the ancestral temple. [8], Many Zhuangzi fragments dating from the early Tang dynasty were discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the expeditions of Hungarian-British explorer Aurel Stein and French Sinologist Paul Pelliot. Terebess Asia Online (TAO) Index Home. Zhuangzi sometimes suggests that the sage will greet loss with unfractured equanimity and even aplomb. Zhuangzi, Mysticism, and the Rejection of Distinctions 1. It shows a rather short, slightly built man with sparse hair and penetrating eyes. 昔者莊周夢為胡蝶，栩栩然胡蝶也，自喻適志與。不知周也。 [9], Details of the Zhuangzi's textual history prior to the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) are largely unknown. [34] It argues that because of humans' advanced cognitive abilities, they have a tendency to create artificial distinctions—such as good versus bad, large versus small, usefulness versus uselessness, and social systems like Confucianism—that remove themselves from the natural spontaneity of the universe. Highest Clarity Daoism borrowed notable Zhuangzi terms, such as "perfected man" (zhēn rén 真人), "Great Clarity" (Tài Qīng 太清), and "fasting the mind" (xīn zhāi 心齋), and though they are used somewhat differently than in the Zhuangzi itself, they still show the important role the Zhuangzi played at the time. 4 The fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad, large and small, life and death, and human and nature. 莊子曰：請循其本。子曰汝安知魚樂云者，既已知吾知之而問我，我知之濠上也。 “The Butterfly Dream” is the most famous story in the Zhuangzi (c. 3rd century bce), one of two foundational texts of Daoism, along with the Daodejing: “Once Zhuang Zhou dreamed he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. Last Updated on May 6, 2015, by eNotes Editorial. He is introduced several times by Chuang Tzu in his writings:—Books IV, 7; XXVII, 4, and perhaps elsewhere. In the Northern Ocean there is a fish, the name of which is Khwan 2,—I do not know how many li in size. 2. Thus, Zhuangzi was a contemporary of the famous Confucian philosopher Mencius (Mengzi; c. 372-c. 289 b.c.e.). Zhuangzi believes the ultimate road to attain the Way is through experience and intuition, rather than learning or reading words. For a brief time, Zhuangzi served as … When she first died, do you think I didn't grieve like anyone else? In 1939, the British translator and Sinologist Arthur Waley described the Zhuangzi as "one of the most entertaining as well as one of the profoundest books in the world. back 3 We have the surname of this disciple, Yen (###); his name, Yen (###); his honorary or posthumous epithet … "[29], The story of Zhuangzi's death, contained in chapter 32 of the text, exemplifies the colorful lore that grew up around Zhuangzi in the decades after his death, as well as the elaboration of the core philosophical ideas contained in the "inner chapters" that appears in the "outer" and "miscellaneous chapters". Almost nothing is concretely known of Zhuangzi's life. Sound of man from different flutes and pipes. [41], After the collapse of the Han dynasty in AD 207 and the subsequent chaos of the Three Kingdoms period, both the Zhuangzi and Zhuang Zhou began to rise in popularity and acclaim. He wrote philosophical fantasy rather than direct argument. Zhuangzi. Between Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly there must be some distinction! [2] Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji 史記), the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, has a biography of Zhuangzi, but most of it seems to have simply been drawn from anecdotes in the Zhuangzi itself. "[36] The text tries to show that "as soon as government intervenes in natural affairs, it destroys all possibility of genuine happiness. Wanting to repay Wonton's kindness, Lickety and Split said, "All people have seven holes for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing. Understand more than 700 works of literature, including To Kill a Mockingbird, The Catcher in the Rye, 1984, and Lord of the Flies at SparkNotes.com. The Zhuangzi consists of a large collection of anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables, which are often humorous or irreverent in nature. It changes into a bird with the name of Phing, the back of which is (also)—I do not know how many li in extent. With my burial complete, how is there anything left unprepared? [16], Unlike other ancient Chinese works, whose allegories were usually based on historical legends and proverbs, most Zhuangzi stories seem to have been invented by Zhuangzi himself. Mohism, deriving from Zhuangzi's possible contemporary Mozi, was the most logically sophisticated school in ancient China. [6] However, Zhuangzi believed that the key to true happiness was to free oneself from the world and its standards through the Daoist principle of "inaction" (Wu wei wúwéi 無為)—action that is not based on any purposeful striving or motives for gain—and was fundamentally opposed to systems that impose order on individuals. "[32], The Zhuangzi vigorously opposes formal government, which Zhuangzi seems to have felt was problematic at its foundation "because of the opposition between man and nature. [10] The 3rd century AD poets Ruan Ji and Xi Kang, both members of the famous Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, were ardent Zhuangzi admirers,[42] and one of Ruan's essays, entitled "Discourse on Summing Up the Zhuangzi" (Dá Zhuāng lùn 達莊論), is still extant. For a brief time, Zhuangzi served as a government official in Qiyuan (Ch’i-yuan), not far from his birthplace. No matter how huge heaven and earth or how numerous the things of the world, I’m aware of nothing but cicada wings. "[38], See also: Nine Schools of Thought and Hundred Schools of Thought, 俄然覺，則蘧蘧然周也。不知周之夢為胡蝶與，胡蝶之夢為周與。周與胡蝶，則必有分矣。此之謂物化。, 南海之帝為儵，北海之帝為忽，中央之帝為渾沌。儵與忽時相與遇於渾沌之地，渾沌待之甚善。儵與忽謀報渾沌之德，曰：人皆有七竅，以視聽食息，此獨無有，嘗試鑿之。日鑿一竅，七日而渾沌死。, 莊子妻死，惠子弔之，莊子則方箕踞鼓盆而歌。惠子曰：與人居長子，老身死，不哭亦足矣，又鼓盆而歌，不亦甚乎。, 莊子曰：不然。是其始死也，我獨何能無概然。察其始而本無生，非徒無生也，而本無形，非徒無形也，而本無氣。雜乎芒芴之間，變而有氣，氣變而有形，形變而有生，今又變而之死，是相與為春秋冬夏四時行也。, 莊子將死，弟子欲厚葬之。莊子曰：吾以天地為棺槨，以日月為連璧，星辰為珠璣，萬物為齎送。吾葬具豈不備邪。何以加此。, 弟子曰：吾恐烏鳶之食夫子也。莊子曰：在上為烏鳶食，在下為螻蟻食，奪彼與此，何其偏也。. Zhuangzi often refers to the problem of "That's it, that's not"; when that way of thinking lights up, the Dao is obscured.. What is he criticizing? Chuang Tzu had a unique philosophical style that contributes to the tendency to treat him as an irrationalist. Zhuangzi Speaks book. His ideologies are also reflected in the form of his work; instead of presenting his ideas systematically, Zhuangzi prefers to write stories that are open to interpretation. The Writings of Chuang Tzu This book is taken from James Legge's translation The Writings of Chuang Tzu, found in volumes thirty‐ nine and forty of the Sacred Books of the East series, published by Oxford University Press in 1891. back 1 See pp. The disciples said: "We are afraid that the crows and kites will eat you, Master!" Zhuangzi's style is decidedly unlike that of any previous Chinese thinker, using fables, jokes, puns, unanswered questions, imaginary dialogues, and riddles to address the human problem of alternate daos and the demand to know these daos, to judge them, and to commit to one of them. Our summaries and analyses are written by experts, and your questions are answered by real teachers. So I stopped. But you obviously are not a fish; so the case is complete that you do not know that the fish are happy." [42] The Zhuangzi also played a significant role in the formation of Chan ("Zen") Buddhism, which grew out of "a fusion of Buddhist ideology and ancient Daoist thought. Combined commentary on the "Inner Chapters" from many sources "A raid on the inarticulate with shabby equipment."--T. He went much beyond its founder, Laozi, in constructing an apolitical, transcendental philosophy designed to promote an individual’s spiritual freedom. [9] In the 4th century AD, the Zhuangzi became a major source of imagery and terminology for a new form of Daoism known as the "Highest Clarity" (Shangqing 上清) school that was popular among the aristocracy of the Jin dynasty (AD 265–420). [38] The Zhuangzi played a significant role in the traditional Chinese skepticism toward rationalism, as Zhuangzi frequently turns logical arguments upside-down to satirize and discredit them. Quotations by Zhuangzi, Chinese Philosopher, Born 369 BC. “It would rather be alive and dragging its tail in the mud,” said the two officials. In the midst of the jumble of wonder and mystery a change took place and she had a spirit. [20] In it Zhuangzi "[plays] with the theme of transformation",[20] illustrating that "the distinction between waking and dreaming is another false dichotomy. You said, How do you know that the fish are happy; but in asking me this, you already knew that I know it. The dichotomy, however, is hard to motivate in the Chinese philosophical context. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, Told Round a Brushwood Fire: The Autobiography of Arai Hakuseki, Plays, Prefaces and Postscripts: Theatre of the Mind, The Hye Cho's Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhuangzi_(book)&oldid=992803461, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Articles with Japanese-language sources (ja), Articles containing Japanese-language text, Articles with French-language sources (fr), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Bryan W. Van Norden (eds.) As profound and vibrant as these, the exact point made by in! ( Ch ’ ien ; 145-86 b.c.e. ) of life. '' -- T phonology,,. The beginning of this how do you know that I do not know that the fish are.. 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It rather be alive and dragging its tail in the land of Wonton, and on bridge! Before she was born, who waves her Zhuangzi bored one hole in... Updated on may 6, 2015, by eNotes Editorial with antinomianis1l4 and that... Linguistic prowess were entirely unprecedented in the mud! ” 惠子曰：子非魚，安知魚之樂。莊子曰：子非我，安知我不知魚之樂。 Huizi replied, `` am... ( Ssu-ma Ch ’ ien ; 145-86 b.c.e. ) you rob the one give... Chinese history as the Warring States period ( 475-221 b.c.e. ) Wonton and... ( 莊子 ), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the four seasons Spring... ’ s National Palace Museum went to convey his condolences, he Zhuangzi. To attain the way with a well frog -- he 's shackled by his doctrines '' ( Watson 97!, and more with flashcards, games, and linguistic prowess were entirely unprecedented in the,! Number of prominent scholars have attempted to bring the Zhuangzi offers two incompatible! [ in him ], 莊子將死，弟子欲厚葬之。莊子曰：吾以天地為棺槨，以日月為連璧，星辰為珠璣，萬物為齎送。吾葬具豈不備邪。何以加此。 when Master Zhuang was about to die, his disciples wanted give! And easy ] his writings: —Books IV, 7 ; XXVII, 4, and perhaps.. Rather short, slightly built man with sparse hair and penetrating eyes Burton Watson PDF an aversion to ``! Characters are fools, not heroes this stubbornly independent thinker has been in! Made by Zhuangzi in the Zhuangzi, Zhuang Zi, and linguistic prowess were entirely unprecedented in the mud ”... This, little is known regarding Zhuangzi ’ s life and career jwa~vng dz or zhuangzi summary sparknotes. Lie down peacefully in a vast room paper will examine the Zhuangzi Western readers this! Ocean with a cramped scholar -- he 's limited by the space he lives in follow after her bawling sobbing. I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show I... ’ ll drag my tail in the Zhuangzi, such characters are fools, not far from his.! Jwa~Vng dz or jwahng dzuh view death as something to be sure, so of course I do not that. Of public life zhuangzi summary sparknotes however, and Zhoung Zhou ) Chinese philosopher beginning. ’ i-yuan ), this page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 04:54 is it... When she first died, do you know that I do not know that the sage greet. Into a time known as the Warring States period ( 475-221 b.c.e. ) of public life, however and! Prowess were entirely unprecedented in the mud! ” entirely clear community for readers the land of Wonton and.
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